Overthinking & Rumination in Adults: Symptoms, Causes, and Solutions
Most of us worry from time to time while replaying an awkward moment in our head, second-guessing a choice, or imagining what could go wrong.
However, clinically significant overthinking and rumination are thought patterns that loop endlessly. Put simply, you are stuck on the problem rather than thinking about the solutions. Over time, constant mental noise can interfere with your relationships and work.
Research shows that chronic rumination is also strongly linked to mental health and sleep problems. For example, people who ruminate frequently are at a greater risk of developing major depressive episodes.1 Repetitive negative thinking also predicts future depression across different age groups and backgrounds.2
On this page, you’ll learn what overthinking and rumination mean, how they develop, their warning signs, and what science says you can do to quiet your mind.
The Cycle of Overthinking and Rumination
“Overthinking” is a common, non-technical way people describe getting stuck in repetitive, unhelpful thinking.
“Rumination” is the psychological term that describes repetitive focus on negative feelings, causes, and consequences of problems. It is a pattern of going over the same negative thoughts again and again.1
When someone gets stuck in a loop of negative thoughts, this can worsen their mood and make it harder to actively solve problems. The result of this distress often feeds more rumination. Here’s how the story usually goes:
- Something triggers an unpleasant thought or feeling.
- The person turns that into repetitive thinking.
- That thinking narrows their attention and reduces practical action.
- The situation doesn’t improve (or social/behavioral costs appear).
- The person ruminates about it again.
The Types of Rumination
Rumination is clinically divided into two types:
- Reflective pondering. It’s the more “trying-to-understand” form of thinking, whereby you try to investigate a problem or scenario. Reflection can, in helpful situations, be calm and deliberate. In these scenarios, reflection allows people to figure things out or change their behavior in the future. That said, reflection can become unhelpful if it turns into a long, ruminating thinking session with no action.
- Brooding. This is a one-sided conversation where a person replays negative events and criticizes themselves. Brooding tends to narrow a person’s attention onto bad feelings and imagined failures, which increases anxiety. This, in turn, prevents the person from finding helpful solutions.3
A large body of research finds that brooding predicts worse mood over time and higher risk of self-harm or suicidal thinking, much more so than reflective pondering.4
If you are struggling or having thoughts of self-harm or suicide, know that you’re not alone. In the U.S., you can call or text 988 to reach the Suicide and Crisis Lifeline – a 24/7 free and confidential support service.
Warning Signs of Overthinking and Rumination You Shouldn’t Ignore
Overthinking can drain a person’s mental energy. It tends to distort how you see yourself and the world. Unfortunately, the longer this cycle continues, the harder it becomes to focus, make decisions, and regulate your emotions.
Here are some symptoms of overthinking and rumination that require support:
- Replaying past mistakes in your head repeatedly, imagining what you “should have said” or “could have done differently.”
- Feeling exhausted at making seemingly simple everyday decisions, such as what to wear, which message to send, and whether to go out.
- Noticing that thinking doesn’t lead to action. Instead of solving your problems, you just keep analyzing them.
- Feeling like your mind has no “off switch,” even when you’re trying to relax.
- Friends or family point out that you “think too much” and seem stuck on the same issue.
- Feeling emotionally drained after long periods of thinking.
- Quickly jumping to worst-case outcomes.
- Difficulty concentrating on everyday tasks like reading, watching a show, or working because your mind drifts back to the same topic.
- Criticizing yourself harshly for perceived flaws or past actions.
- Experiencing physical signs like tension headaches, palpitations, clenched jaw, shallow breathing, or fatigue without a clear cause.
The Causes Behind Rumination
There is no single cause behind why someone begins to ruminate. It arises from a mixture of biological, psychological, environmental, and personal risk factors.
Biological and Psychological Causes
Some people have weaker “cognitive control” by default – not from any of their own doing. That means their brains struggle more to stop and update their thoughts when they’re not helpful. When cognitive control is low, negative thoughts stay in working memory longer.5
Research shows that rumination is linked to overactivity in the brain’s self-focused network and to problems in control networks that normally down-regulate those self-focused thoughts.6 In simple words, the part of your brain that ruminates stays switched on, while the part that should press the “off” button doesn’t work as well.
Also, many people who ruminate begin to believe the assertion that “If I keep thinking about this, I’ll eventually solve it.” This is known as a metacognitive belief, and it has been found to increase rumination, rather than diminish it.
Environmental Triggers
Big life changes like losing a job, ending a relationship, academic pressure, or financial strain often make people go into the overthinking mode. Research shows that major life stress predicts more rumination and, in turn, higher risk for depression and anxiety.1
What’s more, humans are wired to care about social belonging, so when your relationships are shaky, the mind goes inward to analyze your actions. Unfortunately, instead of helping, that over-analysis often deepens emotional pain. Social rejection and relationship stress strongly activate ruminative thought patterns.7
Exposure to high-stress environments contributes to repetitive negative thinking, too. Toxic workplaces or academic settings that demand perfection can feed rumination.
Personal Risk Factors
Certain personality styles make rumination more likely. People high in neuroticism (the tendency to experience guilt and emotional instability) react more strongly to negative events.8 Perfectionism is another major risk factor. When someone feels they must get everything right, the small mistakes they make can spiral into harsh self-criticism.
Growing up with criticism, neglect, or emotional invalidation can also teach a child to blame themselves when something goes wrong. A 2021 study found that adults who experienced early emotional abuse were more likely to develop a ruminative thinking style.9
In addition, women tend to ruminate more than men.10 Women are often encouraged to reflect deeply on emotions, whereas men are much less likely to receive such encouragement. Women’s greater rumination may partly explain their higher rates of depression and anxiety compared to men.
The Link Between Rumination and Mental Health
Research shows that rumination is associated with increases in depressive symptoms. It’s also been found to worsen depressive episodes. What’s more, people who turn over the same negative thoughts again and again are more likely to develop depression after a stressful event. They also tend to stay depressed longer compared with people who use more active coping (problem-solving or distraction).11
Rumination overlaps with worry, too. While worry tends to aim at future problems and rumination at past mistakes, both are repetitive negative thought patterns, and both raise the risk of anxiety.
Research also links rumination to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, eating-disorder thinking, obsessive-compulsive loops, and problem drinking.1, 12, 13
Furthermore, there is evidence that rumination is associated with higher levels of suicidal thinking. People who get stuck on self-blame and hopeless themes can imagine self-harm to be an escape. Studies show that heavy rumination correlates with suicidal ideation and self-harm histories.14
If you are struggling or having thoughts of self-harm or suicide, know that you’re not alone. In the U.S., you can call or text 988 to reach the Suicide and Crisis Lifeline – a 24/7 free and confidential support service.
The Real-World Consequences of Chronic Overthinking
A long-standing history of overthinking can affect your work, sleep, relationships, and safety. Ruminative thinking is tied to presenteeism (being at work but underperforming) and absenteeism, both of which hurt team output.15
Chronic overthinkers also often get trapped in cycles of doubt where they constantly weigh every possible outcome before acting. As such, simple choices become difficult for them. Rumination also increases decision-making difficulty and a lowers a person’s confidence in their choices.16
Furthermore, people who struggle with rumination often notice that the moment their head hits the pillow, their mind starts racing. Chronic rumination has been shown to significantly disrupt sleep quality and duration.17 Night after night of mental replay increases levels of cortisol, the body’s primary stress hormone, leading to fatigue.
What’s more, when you constantly analyze what someone said, what you said back, or what you should have said, your relationships suffer. It makes you overly self-critical in relationships. Rumination after interpersonal conflicts intensifies emotional distress.
Practical Solutions to Deal with Overthinking and Rumination
Mild overthinking can be solved through conscious self-help strategies. However, if your thoughts are persistent and distressing, you likely need professional help.
Self-Help Interventions
Here are some research-backed strategies through which you can help yourself:
- The moment you catch yourself spiraling, say out loud that you are ruminating and need to stop. This simple act of labeling your feelings activates the rational part of your brain that helps you step out of automatic thinking.
- Instead of fighting your thoughts all day, schedule 10-15 minutes to think and write about what’s bothering you.
- Rumination feeds on obsessive thinking about the past and worrying about the future. Deep breathing, observing your surroundings, or using your senses (what you can see, hear, smell, touch, or taste) pulls your attention back to the present moment.
- Simple exercises like a brisk walk or a few minutes of stretching reduce cognitive rumination by releasing endorphins.
- Overthinkers are their own harshest critics. Try talking to yourself the way you’d talk to a close friend who’s struggling, i.e., with patience and kindness.
Rumination-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Rumination-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (RFCBT) was developed by psychologist Dr. Edward R. Watkins and his colleagues at the University of Exeter. It’s based on the principles of CBT, a well-known approach that focuses on how our thoughts, feelings, and actions influence each other.
RFCBT has shown good results in clinical trials. In a study, participants with lingering depression who went through RFCBT improved significantly, and this improvement was linked to reduced rumination.18
Here’s what happens during RFCBT:
- You learn what triggers your rumination.
- You understand whether your thinking is abstract or concrete. Abstract thinking is when your thoughts are vague and judgmental, which tends to keep people stuck in rumination. Concrete thinking is practical.
- You learn to replace unhelpful rumination with healthier habits.
- You try small experiments between sessions, which give you real-life evidence that new habits can work better than old ones.
- You learn self-kindness.
Other Therapies
Many other therapies have been studied to reduce rumination, though they are not believed to be as effective as RFCBT. However, when used together, they produce good results.
Mindfulness practices train you to watch a thought come and go rather than chase it. That reduces the “autopilot” of rumination. Research shows that mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) reduces rumination in depression compared with usual care.19
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) teaches acceptance (allowing your thoughts to be there) and choosing actions that matter to you (values-driven behavior). A growing number of experiments find that ACT reduces work-related rumination, sleep-related rumination, and general perseverative thinking.
There’s also behavioral activation therapy. Rumination thrives in inactivity and avoidance. When you schedule action (small, manageable steps toward valued activities), your brain gets new feedback. This reduces the time and energy available for rumination. This is the principle of behavioral activation therapy.
Compassion-focused therapy (CFT) and self-compassion training are also used alongside RFCBT to reduce self-attacking thoughts.
Mission Connection Can Help You Get Out of Overthinking and Rumination
Breaking free from overthinking and rumination requires you to learn how to relate to your thoughts positively. With the right guidance, long-standing patterns of worry and self-criticism can be transformed into positive thoughts.
At Mission Connection, our experienced and fully licensed therapists specialize in evidence-based approaches to help repetitive thinking.
We offer both in-person sessions and the convenience of secure online therapy to fit your schedule. All our treatment plans are tailored to individual needs and grounded in empathy.
If you are struggling with overthinking, reach out to us today.
References
- Michl, L. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Shepherd, K., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2013). Rumination as a mechanism linking stressful life events to symptoms of depression and anxiety: Longitudinal evidence in early adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031994
- Wilkinson, P. O., Croudace, T. J., & Goodyer, I. M. (2013). Rumination, anxiety, depressive symptoms and subsequent depression in adolescents at risk for psychopathology: a longitudinal cohort study. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-13-250
- Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination Reconsidered: A Psychometric Analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023910315561
- Armey, M. F., Fresco, D. M., Moore, M. T., Mennin, D. S., Turk, C. L., Heimberg, R. G., Kecmanovic, J., & Alloy, L. B. (2009). Brooding and Pondering. Assessment, 16(4), 315–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191109340388
- Song, X., Long, J., Wang, C., Zhang, R., & Lee, T. M. C. (2022). The inter-relationships of the neural basis of rumination and inhibitory control: neuroimaging-based meta-analyses. Psychoradiology, 2(1), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/psyrad/kkac002
- Zareian, B., Wilson, J., & LeMoult, J. (2021). Cognitive Control and Ruminative Responses to Stress: Understanding the Different Facets of Cognitive Control. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.660062
- Shaw, Z. A., Handley, E. D., Warmingham, J. M., & Starr, L. R. (2023). Patterns of life stress and the development of ruminative brooding in adolescence: A person-centered approach. Development and Psychopathology, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579423000974
- Vidal-Arenas, V., Bravo, A. J., Ortet-Walker, J., Ortet, G., Mezquita, L., & Ibáñez, M. I. (2022). Neuroticism, rumination, depression and suicidal ideation: A moderated serial mediation model across four countries. International Journal of Clinical & Health Psychology, 22(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2022.100325
- Zhong, X., Li, S., & Zhou, W. (2025). Childhood emotional neglect and depression in emerging adults: Exploring the roles of rumination and resilience. Acta Psychologica, 258, 105272–105272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105272
- Johnson, D. P., & Whisman, M. A. (2013). Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(4), 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.019
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504–511. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11016119/
- Smith, K. E., Mason, T. B., & Lavender, J. M. (2018). Rumination and eating disorder psychopathology: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 61, 9–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.03.004
- Greene, B., Seepaul, A., Htet, K., & Erblich, J. (2021). Psychological distress, obsessive-compulsive thoughts about drinking, and alcohol consumption in young adult drinkers. Journal of Substance Use, 27(3), 300–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2021.1941346
- Holdaway, A. S., Luebbe, A. M., & Becker, S. P. (2018). Rumination in relation to suicide risk, ideation, and attempts: Exacerbation by poor sleep quality? Journal of Affective Disorders, 236, 6–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.04.087
- Toyoshima, K., Masahiko Ichiki, Inoue, T., Shimura, A., Jiro Masuya, Fujimura, Y., Higashi, S., & Ichiro Kusumi. (2021). Subjective cognitive impairment and presenteeism mediate the associations of rumination with subjective well-being and ill-being in Japanese adult workers from the community. BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13030-021-00218-x
- van Randenborgh, A., de Jong-Meyer, R., & Hüffmeier, J. (2009). Rumination fosters indecision in dysphoria. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66(3), 229–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20647
- Marini, C. M., Wilson, S. J., Nah, S., Martire, L. M., & Sliwinski, M. J. (2020). Rumination and Sleep Quality Among Older Adults: Examining the Role of Social Support. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 76(10), 1948–1959. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa230
- Langenecker, S. A., Westlund Schreiner, M., Bessette, K. L., Roberts, H., Thomas, L., Dillahunt, A., Pocius, S. L., Feldman, D. A., Jago, D., Farstead, B., Pazdera, M., Kaufman, E., Galloway, J. A., Kerig, P. K., Bakian, A., Welsh, R. C., Jacobs, R. H., Crowell, S. E., & Watkins, E. R. (2024). Rumination-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Reduces Rumination and Targeted Cross-network Connectivity in Youth With a History of Depression: Replication in a Preregistered Randomized Clinical Trial. Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science, 4(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsgos.2023.08.012
- Wei, S., Qin, W., Yu, Z., Cao, Y., & Li, P. (2025). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy on rumination and related psychological indicators: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03348-x
